This post is based on a lecture about Public Diplomacy by Prof. N. V. Bulavintsev.
Public diplomacy goes beyond communication between governments between different countries. Although it may have seemed that way in the past, it is actually about who has the right to tell the story, who listens, and what is considered the «truth» in the global arena. Over time, the way nations as well as non-state actors communicate with foreign audiences has evolved significantly. This evolution unfolds across three distinct eras: the monologue era, the competitive duel era, and the market diplomacy era.
1. The Monologue Era (before 1945)
In ancient times, empires conquered not only territory but also narratives. For example, the Roman Empire promoted the Pax Romana, a grand narrative that explained universal order, civilization, and Roman identity. Becoming a Roman citizen meant adopting this story.
Similarly, the Ottoman Empire’s millet system and the Vatican’s canonization processes were early forms of «narrative governance» to manage diverse groups through controlled stories that reinforced hierarchies and belonging.
The invention of the printing press brought a radical shift because it allowed both states and revolutionaries to mass-produce their messages. Thomas Jefferson and the Founding Fathers wrote the Declaration of Independence for Americans, and at the same time they also forged a global ideological weapon to inspire anti-monarchical movements worldwide.
During this period, communication was one-way: a single source issued an authoritative message that was nearly impossible to challenge publicly. The key skill to create these messages was mythmaking. Stories must serve power and, to do so, they were emotional, repeatable and able to simplify complex realities.
2. The Competitive Duel Era (1945–1991)
During the Cold War, public diplomacy turned into a «megaphone duel» between two superpowers: the United States and the Soviet Union.
The United States broadcasted its narratives through outlets like Voice of America and Radio Free Europe, while the Soviet Union did the same from Radio Moscow.
The Cold War also saw the practical emergence of what political scientist Joseph Nye would later, in the 1990s, label «soft power,» i.e., the ability to influence the audience based on economic and cultural appeal rather than military coercion.
For instance, instead of openly promoting communism, the USSR sent the Bolshoi Ballet or jazz orchestras abroad to showcase cultural vitality and create strategic cognitive dissonance. How could an «oppressive regime» produce such beauty?
Meanwhile, the United States launched educational programs like the Fulbright scholarships to instill its values through personal experience and by educating future global elites in America.
In this period also appeared «non-aligned» voices, such as India, Egypt, and Yugoslavia, that used public diplomacy to craft a third narrative advocating postcolonial sovereignty outside the dominant East-West rivalry.
It was also during this time that the term and concept of «public diplomacy» first appeared. It was coined in 1965 by Edmund Gullion, an American diplomat working in Vietnam at the time. He noticed that South Vietnamese officials aligned with the U.S. while the local population strongly opposed it. Up to that moment, traditional diplomacy ignored this gap, so Gullion introduced the idea of winning hearts through direct engagement with foreign populations rather than focusing only on their governments.
Nowadays, public diplomacy involves states and non-state actors who connect with foreign audiences through culture, education, and media to build trust and shape opinions that support a country’s foreign policy interests.
3. The Market Diplomacy Era (1991–present)
With the fall of the Berlin Wall and the rise of the internet, a global marketplace of narratives emerged, where trust became the most valuable and scarcest value.
The 1991 Gulf War was the last conflict dominated by a single narrative, broadcasted by CNN. By 2003, when the Iraq War began, that information monopoly didn’t exist anymore. Citizen journalists, Al Jazeera, blogs, and social media told the story from many different perspectives.
Today, non-state actors are often more influential than governments. Global corporations with strong media and market presence shape public perception by selling ideas. For example, Apple champions privacy, Tesla markets sustainability, and Greenpeace sets ethical agendas.
This type of diplomacy is called «market diplomacy» because audiences are saturated with stories where authenticity outweighs authority. Few pay attention to official government documents, but many trust a TikTok video showing authenticity or their favorite YouTuber.
Embassies have adapted to the trend. They now host Reddit AMAs, reply to criticism on Twitter/X, and collaborate with local artists on Instagram. This shift demands diplomats to acquire new skills comparable to the ones needed in marketing: community management, real-time narrative agility, data literacy, and above all, the ability to listen to their audiences.
How should we approach diplomatic communication in today’s world?
Next time you encounter any act of international communication (a viral meme, a film festival, or a diplomatic tweet) ask yourself:
1. Which era’s logic does it follow?
• Monologue (top-down decree)?
• Duel (competitive broadcasting)?
• Market (dialogue and co-creation)?
2. Who is the author?
• A single state voice?
• A coalition?
• A complex mix of state and non-state actors?
3. How does it seek to influence?
• Through authority?
• Through competitive appeal?
• Through trust and networked participation?
Nowadays, public diplomacy is practiced by organizations and communicators who understand that, amid saturation and widespread skepticism, the most powerful stories are those that generate connection. Therefore, actors in the diplomatic sphere must go beyond narrative analysis and rather engage audiences to strengthen their country’s image and the stories it promotes.
Did you know about these three eras? Do you think some countries still practice monologue or duel-style diplomacy?
Until next time,
Elena
Did you know about these three eras? Do you think that some countries still have a monologue or duel diplomacy?
Until next time,
Elena
